Serotonin Function and Mechanism of Antidepressant Action

Serotonin Function and Mechanism of Antidepressant Action Neurotransmitters are chemicals located and released in the brain to allow an impulse from one nerve cell to pass to another nerve cell. There are approximately 50 neurotransmitters identified. There are billions of nerve cells located in the brain, which do not directly touch each other. Nerve cells communicate messages by secreting neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters can excite or inhibit neurons (nerve cells). Some common neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA). Serotonin is a monoamine neurotransmitter. It is synthesized, from the amino acid L-tryptophan, in brain neurons and stored in vesicles. Serotonin is found in three main areas of the body: the intestinal wall; large constricted blood vessels; and the central nervous system. The most widely studied effects have been those on the central nervous system. The functions of serotonin are numerous and appear to involve control of appetite, sleep, memory and learning, temperature regulation, mood, behavior (including sexual and hallucinogenic behavior), cardiovascular function, muscle contraction, endocrine regulation, and depression. It is a well-known contributor to feelings of well-being; therefore it is also known as a happiness hormone despite not being a hormone. Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter which complements excitatory sympathetic systems like adrenaline and dopamine in the Central Nervous System. The physiological activity of serotonin starts from the brainstem in groups of brain cells called Raphe nucleus. Serotonin brain cells then spread to various regions of the central nervous system by branching out throughout the brain. History In 1935, Italian Vittorio Erspamer showed that an extract from enterochromaffin cells made intestines contract. Some believed it contained adrenaline, but two years later Erspamer was able to show that it was a previously unknown amine, which he named enteramine.[4] In 1948, Maurice M. Rapport, Arda Green, and Irvine Page of the Cleveland Clinic discovered a vasoconstrictor substance in blood serum, and since it was a serum agent affecting vascular tone, they named it serotonin. In 1952 it was shown that enteramine was the same substance as serotonin, and as the broad range of physiological roles were elucidated, the abbreviation 5HT of the proper chemical name 5-hydroxytryptamine became the preferred name in the pharmacological field. Mechanism of action The activity of serotonin arises in the brainstem from clusters of neurons known as the raphe nucleus. From the brain, serotonin neurons extend to virtually all parts of the central nervous system making the branching of the serotonin network the most expansive neurochemical system in the brain. The importance of this network becomes apparent when considering each serotonin neuron exerts an influence over as many as 500,000 target neurons. Due to the widespread distribution of serotonin in the nervous system, it is not surprising that this neurotransmitter can be linked to many types of behavior. Of the chemical neurotransmitter substances, serotonin is perhaps the most implicated in the treatment of various disorders, including anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, stroke, obesity, pain, hypertension, vascular disorders, migraine, and nausea. A major factor in the understanding of the role of 5-HT in these disorders is the recent rapid advance made in understanding the physiological role of various serotonin receptor subtypes. There are at least four populations of receptors for serotonin: 5-HT1, 5-HT2, 5-HT3, and 5-HT4. The physiological function of each receptor subtype has not been established and is currently the subject of intensive investigation. Effects as a neurotransmitter Most neurotransmitters are released from tiny synaptic terminal buttons at the ends of nerve cells, but serotonin appears to be different. It is instead released freely from serotonergic varicosities into the general neuronal space, diffusing over a much larger area to activate the 5-HT receptors of nearby neurons. This reuptake can be disrupted by agents like MDMA, cocaine, tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The overall action of serotonin is very complex and not entirely understood. Peripheral effects Cardiovascular action The cardiovascular effects of serotonin are complex. They are variable depending on the dose injected, experimental conditions, animal species and vascular state. Action on vessels: Serotonin induces either a vasoconstriction by 5-HT2 effect, in particular of renal vessels, or a vasodilation. Serotonin constricts veins and seems to induce venous thromboses and promotes platelet aggregating effect. It increases capillary permeability. Action on heart: Serotonin has a positive chronotropic action by 5-HT4 receptor stimulation and could take part in the genesis of certain rhythm disorders. It has a positive inotropic effect. Action on blood pressure: It is complex, according to experimental conditions, serotonin gives either hypotension, or hypertension, or no modification. Action on smooth muscles Serotonin induces contractions of intestine, bronchi and uterus. Digestive effects: Serotonin increases intestinal motility, probably by stimulation of 5-HT4 and 5-HT3 receptors: in human beings, injected by intravenous route, it increases duodenum and small intestine motility. This effect explains diarrhea observed in patients with carcinoid syndrome. Bronchial effects: Serotonin has a bronchoconstrictive action and a serotonin aerosol induces dyspnea (difficult or labored respiration). Uterus effect: Serotonin induces contractions of the uterus. Other actions Researchers have also found evidence that serotonin may play a role in regulating milk production in the breast, and that a defect within the serotonin network may be one underlying cause of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome). Central effects Serotonin is involved in the regulation of sleep, mood (antidepressant action), temperature, appetite (appetite suppressant effect). Overstimulation of 5-HT2 receptors could induce productive and negative symptoms of psychotic disorders. LSD or lysergide, agonist of 5-HT2 receptors and also of D1 and D2 dopaminergic receptors, has hallucinogenic properties. Serotonin, thanks to its various types of presynaptic and postsynaptic receptors, modulates the activity of other transmitters. It plays a determining part in adaptation. Effects of Excess or Low Serotonin Serotonin is involved in allergic and inflammatory symptoms and in certain diseases: Carcinoid syndrome: The carcinoid syndrome is caused by metastatic tumors of enterochromaffin cells of the digestive tract which secrete various compounds, in particular a great quantity of serotonin. It is characterized by diarrhea, flushes (accesses of cutaneous vasodilation followed by a vasoconstriction), dyspnea and sometimes a damage to cardiac valves. The biological diagnosis of these tumors is based on the increase in serotonin concentration in blood and on the excretion of abnormal amounts of 5-hydroxy-indolacetic acid, 5-HIAA, in urines. Migraine: Migraine is a disease characterized by repeated accesses of headache in which vasomotor phenomena and serotonin play a determining part. In the first prodromic phase, there is a vasoconstriction, and in the second painful phase, a vasodilation. This vasodilation is reduced by vasoconstrictive drugs. Myocardial ischemia: Serotonin released from platelets seems to worsen the myocardial ischemia by vasoconstriction. Hallucinations occur due to increased levels of Serotonin. Generalized anxiety disorder People with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) experience excessive worry that causes problems at work and in the maintenance of daily responsibilities. Evidence suggests that GAD involves several neurotransmitter systems in the brain, including norepinephrine and serotonin. Deficiencies or excessive intake of certain dietary minerals and vitamins can disrupt the level of serotonin, causing disruptions in the production or reuptake processes surrounding serotonin. Several drugs that affect the serotonin system Several classes of drugs target the 5-HT system, including some antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, antiemetics, and antimigraine drugs, as well as the psychedelic drugs and empathogens. When Serotonin is low, certain problems with concentration and attention can be experienced. People become scatterbrained and poorly organized. It takes longer to do things because of poor planning. When Serotonin is moderately low, the following symptoms and behaviours have been observed: Chronic fatigue. Despite sleeping extra hours and naps, fatigue remains. There is a sense of being worn out Sleep disturbance. Appetite disturbance is present, usually in two types. There is a loss of appetite and subsequent weight loss or a craving for sweets and carbohydrates when the brain is trying to make more Serotonin. Total loss of sexual interest is present. In fact, there is loss of interest in everything, including those activities and interests that have been enjoyed in the past. Social withdrawal is common not answering the phone, rarely leaving the house/apartment, stop calling friends and family, and withdrawal from social events. Emotional sadness and frequent crying spells are common. Self-esteem and self-confidence are low. Body sensations, due to Serotonins role as a body regulator, include hot flushes and temperature changes, headaches, and stomach distress. Clinical Depression This is perhaps the most common mental health problem encountered in practice. One in four adults will experience clinical depression within their lifetime. Serotonin acts as an important feel-good neurotransmitter, sending signals that an individual is relaxed and happy. In the absence of serotonin, patients feel sad and unwell and may even experience fear, anxiety and physical discomfort. serotonin acts as an important feel-good neurotransmitter, sending signals that an individual is relaxed and happy. In the absence of serotonin, patients feel sad and unwell and may even experience fear, anxiety and physical discomfort. Treatment for depression, as might be expected, involves increasing levels of Serotonin in the brain. Since the mid-eighties, medications have been available that attempt to specifically target and increase Serotonin. Known as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), these medications such as Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil are felt to work by making more Serotonin available in the brain. Like all neurotransmitters, we can have too much Serotonin. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder The American Academy of Family Physicians explains that one of the disorders categorized as a serotonin deficiency-related illness is obsessive-compulsive disorder. In this psychiatric condition, patients feel obsessed with certain issues, like cleanliness or order, and are therefore compelled to engage in what they perceive as related behaviors, including rigorous and repetitive cleaning or hand washing. Researchers have determined that low levels of serotonin in the brain are responsible for many cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder, and physicians prescribe pharmaceuticals that help increase brain levels of serotonin. These drugs help reduce or relieve symptoms entirely, allowing individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder to live normal lives. Serotonin Syndrome While elevated levels of Serotonin produce a sense of well-being, bliss, and oneness with the universe too much Serotonin can produce a life-threatening condition known as Serotonin Syndrome (SS).Likely to occur by accident by combining two Serotonin-increasing medications or substances. These are some of its symptoms: Cognitive mental confusion, hypomania, agitation, headache, coma Autonomic shivering, sweating, fever, hypertension, tachycardia, nausea, diarrhea Somatic myoclonus/clonus (muscle twitching), hyperreflexia, tremor Emergency medical treatment is required, utilizing medications that neutralize or block the action of Serotonin as the treatment for Serotonin Syndrome (SS). Discontinuation syndrome Antidepressants such as SSRIs have some dependence producing effects, most notably a withdrawal syndrome. Their dependence producing properties (depending on the antidepressant) may not be as significant as other psychotropic drugs such as benzodiazepines, however, withdrawal symptoms nonetheless may be quite severe and even debilitating. SSRIs have little abuse potential, but discontinuation can produce disturbing withdrawal symptoms that may not be able to be distinguished from a reoccurrence of the original illness: Sexual side effects Cardiac side effects Suicide risk Post SSRI sexual dysfunction Aggression Permanent nuerophysiological changes Persistent pulmonary hypertension Bleeding tendencies Applications of Serotonin SSRIs Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are commonly used as first-line therapy to treat mood disorders due to their demonstrated efficacy, safety, and tolerability profiles. SSRIs may play an intricate role in treating hormone-mediated disorders that disturb the quality of life for women. Selected uses of SSRIs, specifically in the treatment of hot flashes, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, and postpartum depression, are explored in this article. Data from several studies support the use of SSRIs in these conditions, and therefore, these agents have the potential to significantly improve mood, cognitive function, physical symptoms, and social functioning in patients with these disorders. In addition, SSRIs may prove to be viable alternatives to current therapies that may be contraindicated, poorly tolerated, or lack efficacy in patients with these disorders. Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome PTSD is an anxiety disorder affecting individuals who have been exposed to a disastrous event, which may have threatened their lives or included witnessing tragic harm being afflicted. This disorder is most often related to individuals who have experienced combat. Patients are treated with an SSRI-Selective Serotonin Receptacle Inhibitors that have a calming effect on the body. The result for the patient is a calming effect on the body and reduction in the feeling of anxiety and aggression. Fibromyalagia Fibromyalgia is a disorder characterized by widespread pain of the muscles and tendons accompanied by varied tender points all over the body and general fatigue. Fibromyalgia affects more women than men and occurs in 2 percent of the population in the United States. As serotonin is a pain-fighting hormone, it is frequently used to treat fibromyalgia. Many medical professionals agree fibromyalgia is caused by low levels of serotonin. Besides taking supplements, serotonin can be taken from natural sources of tryptophan. Tryptophan is an amino acid that aids in the bodys production of serotonin and is found in soy, turkey, chicken, halibut, beans and cheddar cheese. General Stress Serotonins mood regulating neurotransmitters help alleviate stress in sufferers. People suffering from chronic stress benefit from supplementing their regular diet with serotonin, or tryptophan to increase its production. In some cases, using lavender can induce feelings of calm and happiness. Known as a feel good hormone, serotonin is actually lowered by high levels of stress and therefore must be added back. Ways to increase serotonin levels: Eat healthy Free Range Turkey Tryptophan is an essential amino acid that is present, in different amounts, in all protein foods. This amino acid is the building block for the neurotransmitter serotonin. Flaxseed/ Flaxseed oil As well as being great for fat loss, flaxseeds are great foods that raise serotonin levels because they contain both tryptophan and high levels of omega 3 fatty acids. 60 percent of the brain is made of structural fats, and omega 3 fatty acids make up a large proportion of brain nerve cells. Wild Fish and Sea food = Fatty fish like wild salmon, sardines and herring are rich in oils containing the essential fats EPA and DHA. Both of these long chain fats have been shown in trials both to smooth the mood swings of bipolar disorder and to ease regular depression. Whey protein = Whey protein has gained a greater and greater reputation as a super-food over recent years. Whey has been shown to regulate appetite, improve insulin sensitivity and blood sugar levels, bolster the immune system and has been shown to be the ideal protein source to use around workout time. Bananas High quality Eggs Sour Cherries Free Range Beef Dark Chocolate Cocoa is well known to increase serotonin levels in the brain the trick is not to eat so much that you crash a few hours later. Similarly most chocolate is clearly high in sugar and will spike blood sugar levels causing serotonin levels to plummet when your blood sugar crashes.

Comparing and Contrasting Epic of Gilgamesh and the Bibles Noahs Ark

Comparing and Contrasting Epic of Gilgamesh and Noah's Ark Many cultures have stories of a great flood, and probably the best known story is of Noah's Ark. The next most notable is the Sumerian story of Ut-Napishtim found in the Epic of Gilgamesh. In the ancient Babylonian depiction of the flood story, the god Enlil creates a flood to destroy a noisy mankind that is disturbing his sleep. Gilgamesh is told by another god, Ea, to build an ark (Monack 1). The Epic of Gilgamesh has broadly the same structure and plot as Noah's Ark, suggesting the possibility that the Biblical account has drawn influence from the archaeologically older Sumerian depiction. University professor Alexander Heidel concludes that these accounts are undeniably related (Fowler 1). According to theological considerations, the Epic and the Biblical versions can be contrasted as well. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the gods are depicted as lacking any moral or ethical purpose in their pronouncement of judgment (Fowler 2). In contrast, the Biblical record describes only one God who is just and moral. The archite...

Titanic :: essays research papers fc

Titanic I have always been intrigued by the Titanic, but my interest boomed with the recent development in how the side of the ship was damaged. I was amazed that instead of causing a gaping wound, as was previously believed, the iceberg that Titanic hit merely caused a series of small rips in the side of the ship. Sonar was used to determine that the side of the ship had six small slits that were no bigger than a single hand (http://www.titanic.cc/sonar.htm). This research amazed me because of the amount of water that passed through the small slits in the hull. I was always interested in ships, but the mystery that surrounded the Titanic sinking caused me to choose it for my senior project. At our first meeting (May 29, 1997), Mrs. Ferguson mentioned that I should try to incorporate my creative writing abilities into the project. Together, we came up with writing fictional diary entries for real passengers. My intent was to bring the people of the doomed liner to life through their thoughts throughout the trip. I chose which passengers’ diaries I would write and then heavily researched each of these individuals. The craze from the movie Titanic made getting information difficult but I was able to gather the facts I needed from the Internet as well as books and documents from the library. After researching the people, I adapted their personas and attempted to write a close facsimile to what I believe their diaries would have resembled. RMS Titanic was the last grand dream of the Gilded Age. It was designed to be the greatest achievement of an era of prosperity, confidence, and propriety. The old presumptions about class, morals, and gender-roles were about to be shattered. If the concept of Titanic was the climax of the age, then perhaps its sinking was the curtain that marked the end of the old drama and the start of a new one. The intensely competitive transatlantic steamship business had seen recent major advances in ship design, size and speed. White Star Li ne, one of the leaders, was determined to focus on size and elegance rather than pure speed. In 1907, White Star Line's managing director, J. Bruce Ismay, and Lord James Pirrie, a partner in Harland & Wolff, conceived of a vision of three magnificent steam ships which would set a new standard for comfort, elegance, and safety.

Causes of World War II Essay -- American History European

Causes of World War II Many historians have traced the causes of World War II to problems left unsolved by World War I (1914-1918). World War I and the treaties that ended it also created new political and economic problems. Forceful leaders in several countries took advantage of these problems to seize power. The desire of dictators in Germany, Italy, and Japan to conquer additional territory brought them into conflict with the democratic nations. After World War I ended, representatives of the victorious nations met in Paris in 1919 to draw up peace treaties for the defeated countries. These treaties, known as the Peace of Paris, followed a long and bitter war. They were worked out in haste by these countries with opposing goals; and failed to satisfy even the victors. Of all the countries on the winning side, Italy and Japan left the peace conference most dissatisfied. Italy gained less territory than it felt it deserved and vowed to take action on its own. Japan gained control of German territories in the Pacific and thereby launched a program of expansion. But Japan was angered by the peacemakers' failure to endorse the principle of the equality of all races. The countries that lost World War I--Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey--were especially dissatisfied with the Peace of Paris. They were stripped of territory, arms and were required to make reparations (payments for war damages). The Treaty of Versailles, which was signed with Germany, punished Germany severely. The German government agreed to sign the treaty only after the victorious powers threatened to invade. Many Germans particularly resented the clause that forced Germany to accept responsibility for causing World War I. World War I seriously damaged the economies of the European countries. Both the winners and the losers came out of the war deeply in debt. The defeated powers had difficulty paying reparations to the victors, and the victors had difficulty repaying their loans to the United States. The shift from a wartime economy to a peacetime economy caused further problems. Italy and Japan suffered from too many people and too few resources after World War I. They eventually tried to solve their problems by territorial expansion. In Germany, runaway inflation destroyed the value of money and wiped out the savings of millions of people. In 1923, the Ger... ...ed by meeting Hitler's demands. That policy became known as appeasement. Chamberlain had several meetings with Hitler during September 1938 as Europe teetered on the edge of war. Hitler raised his demands at each meeting. On September 29, Chamberlain and French Premier Edouard Daladier met with Hitler and Mussolini in Munich, Germany. Chamberlain and Daladier agreed to turn over the Sudetenland to Germany, and they forced Czechoslovakia to accept the agreement. Hitler promised that he had no more territorial demands. The Munich Agreement marked the height of the policy of appeasement. Chamberlain and Daladier hoped that the agreement would satisfy Hitler and prevent war--or that it would at least prolong the peace until Britain and France were ready for war. The two leaders were mistaken on both counts. The failure of appeasement soon became clear. Hitler broke the Munich Agreement in March 1939 and seized the rest of Czechoslovakia. He thereby added Czechoslovakia's armed forces and industries to Germany's military might. In the months before World War II began, Germany's preparations for war moved ahead faster than did the military build-up of Britain and France.

The Harmful Effects of Video Games

The Harmful Effects of Video Games By: Alan Bruestle I. Introduction: A. Video games, the ability to leave reality via controller, and glowing screen of color and bliss. A escape from life through the form of technological entertainment that has been developed and passed down to generations for decades. So why does society have such a big dispute over the use of video games? B. Many people believe that video games are only a source of fun and entertainment. Although there is truth in that video games give pleasure to the user, not many notice and realize the harmful effects that they have on society.C. Should video games be changed in a manner that the harmful content is removed completely from the entertainment? Should society limit or keep the certain content of video games to a minimum, or should everything be left the same? I believe that video games should be limited and a law should be passed that restricts the use of video games to people who acquire a problem in their life. D . The laws I believe that should be placed would be the results from effects on society, due to video games.The three main points that have really been noticed in society is the increase in physical effects, mental effects, and graphic influence. II. Explanation of Problems/Need A. Definitions 1. Physical – Overall Health, Disorders 2. Mental – Addiction, Social Isolation, Learning 3. Graphic Influence – Drugs, Nudity, Graphic violence B. Background/Causes/Effect 1. Background a. Many years old b. Multi billion dollar industry c. Demand won't collapse d. Technology grows. Demand increase. e. Society always impacted. 2. Causes a. Features become better b. Consumer desire alternate life . Difference 3. Effects a. Alternate life fills boredom. b. Violence increases aggression. c. Might mimic characters. d. Users perspective addiction, forget life. e. Designers satisfy older age group. f. Can influence all age groups. III. Physical A. Overall Health. 1. Obesity 2. S eizures B. Disorders 1. Postural, Muscular, Skeletal 2. Tendonitis, Nerve compression, Carpal tunnel syndrome IV. Mental A. Addiction 1. Lost sense of reality 2. Social Isolation B. Behavior 1. Mimic video games 2. Aggressive behaviors maybe become worse. C. Style of learning 1.Mastery leading to constant play 2. Rewarded for game play. Violence = Reward V. Graphic Influence A. Violence 1. Resolving to aggression. 2. Using violence in real life. B. Influence. 1. In game content. Drugs, violence, nudity, profanity 2. Higher drug and crime rates. Lower school rate. VI. Counter Arguement. A. Health related 1. Some games involve physical movement. 2. Used to practice work. Ex. Doctors 3. Increased brain activity from puzzles 4. Increased Hand eye coordination B. Miscellaneous 1. Multi billion industry 2. Simply entertaining VII. Conclusion A.With the problems that come with most video games, should they be changed to better our society and fix some of the problems? B. The possibility of physical effects, mental effects, and graphic influence caused by video games, make it seem like the risk of playing most of them are not worth the risk to society.Associated Content from Yahoo! – Associatedcontent. om. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. . â€Å"The Good and Bad Effects of Video Games. † Raise Smart Kid. Web. 23 Nov. 2010. . â€Å"The Impact of Video Games on Society – by Tegan Mcrae – Helium. † Helium – Where Knowledge Rules. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. . â€Å"Teen-Rated Video Games Loaded With Violence – News Room. † Children's Hospital Boston. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. . â€Å"Video Game Addiction. † WebMD – Better Information. Better Health. Web. 23 Nov. 2010. . â€Å"Violent Video Games – Psychologists Help Protect Children from Harmful Effects. † American Psychological Association (APA). Web. 24 Nov. 2010. .

How Does Robespierre Justify the Use of Terror?

What began as a march to Versailles to acquire King Louis XVI’s attention to end the grievances of the general population in 1789, soon spiraled into what became known as The French Revolution. With the execution of Louis XVI in 1973, this new â€Å"regime† still had many problems to overcome including the continuing war that constantly needed men and money. The National Convention (which was created in 1792 as part of a campaign to convert France into a constitutional monarchy) amid high pressures, decided to set in place a centralized government which provided everyone with food, support and direct the war effort, and punish counterrevolutionaries (611). Headed by Maxmilien Robespierre, this new government was based on the principles of virtue, in which the government sought to educate and/or force the citizens to become virtuous. Inspired by enlightenment thinkers Montesquieu and Rousseau, he believed in the importance of a government by terror. Robespierre justified his beliefs by saying stuff like: â€Å"To punish the oppressors of humanity is clemency; to forgive them is barbarity. † So began what is now known as the Reign of terror. Robespierre strictly believed that â€Å"terror† would set the citizens in place; with this terror, the public along with the upper class could be controlled. This so called terror was blanketed with the idea of nationalist pride- pride in their nation, backed by songs, posters, books, engravings, paintings, sculptures, and slogans (615). Robespierre justified his regime by constantly exclaiming that virtue was born from terror. Robespierre said, â€Å"The government in a revolution is the despotism of liberty against tyranny. â€Å" Although this quote seems confusing at first, further studied despotism is another word for tyranny or dictatorship, which basically means that a government in revolution is the tyranny of liberty against tyranny- the tyranny of freedom over tyranny. Before his reign, the guillotine was used for only nobles condemned to death and commoners were usually hanged, but when in power it was Robespierre’s instrument of choice when it came to dealing with the people that disagreed with him or was a threat to the government. Also created was a Committee of Public Safety, which sent deputies on missions to purge unreliable officials and organize the war effort (612). Of course, with every regime, there is always a resistance. In this case, many were unhappy and showed their unhappiness. Soon it all turned into a civil war with the appearance of many counterrevolutionary armies and uprisings. â€Å"Across the country, the official Terror cost the lives of at least 40,000 French people, and as many as 300,000 (1/5 of the French people) went to prison as suspects between March 1793 and August 1794 (619). Robespierre was overthrown on July 27 of 1794 and was executed the next day on the guillotine. Some 150 years later, we saw more leaders who possessed the same ideologies: Stalin, who himself launched what was known as The Great Purge to get rid of people accused of treachery and treason in the Communist Party and Hitler, who rose to power by initially winning the hearts of people by starting a new movement totally different from the movement. Today, we see the same agenda on the minds of terrorists. Since a great deal of the human population have a greater understanding of democracy and many are democratic nations, it isn’t common to see a leader who will take complete charge, become a dictator and issue a reign of terror. There are, of course, many militant groups that form and commit acts of terrorism with the thought that â€Å"fear will instill virtue. † These days, people are more resistant to being forced to do something, even if it is violent. There will be a great resistance and the people who attempt to use fear to instill virtue will be put on most wanted and threat lists by many nations.

Does Outsourcing by Multinational Companies Cost Jobs?

Does outsourcing by multinational companies cost jobs and lower wages in Europe? Does outsourcing by multinational companies cost jobs and lower wages in Europe? ABSTRACT Outsourcing as a method of trade has been an increasing phenomenon throughout the last decade particularly by multinational companies of developed countries such as Europe to outsource their business operations to developing countries such as India, Bangladesh etc.However, this outsourcing by multinational companies raise a question regarding cost jobs and lower wages in Europe. Moreover, the latest style enduring, and there is a shift also towards additional complicated and high end methods to be outsourced. One of the appearing market areas for multinational companies of Europe is India, which is attracting decisions of outsourcing and some extent becoming a reason of cost jobs and lower wages in Europe.However, it is not justifiable to only say that outsourcing by multinational companies do cost jobs and lower w ages in Europe, therefore it can also state that outsourcing by multinational companies of Europe have some advantages as well, therefore, there is also an explanation of ideas and present check-list for European trades, which are searching for chances to incorporate into markets of India. INTRODUCTION The issues of globalization and the outsourcing of high-skilled jobs are central to the recent innovation policy debate (Farrell, 54-59).Corporate decisions are increasingly being made with little regard to how it affects workers. In multinational companies of Europe outsourcing is not a new practice. However, outsourcing jobs are more or less new to people of Europe. Now days, in political debates it is a hot issues. According to different economist of European Union certain types of benefits to outsourcing by multinational companies and some jobs will be created in Europe by outsourcing.On the other hand, many debates that due to outsourcing many people have lost their jobs and many small businesses have been closed. Overseas market is a place where many European jobs are being sent therefore, outsourcing by multinational companies cost jobs and lower wages in Europe (Farrell, 54-59). Many aspects jobs have been moved to overseas, for example shoe producers, telemarketing jobs, jean manufactures, Software Corporation etc. Many European multinational companies are outsourcing for their future financial system.Through facilitating companies to save expenses, produce as well as possess entry to a great available group of capacity, outsourcing is basically protecting the steadiness of European multinational companies’ financial system through protecting the strength of European industries. Outsourcing has brought benefits to economical sector but on the other hand many employees have lost their jobs due to it. DISCUSSION It is a considerable reality that in the contemporary competitive international business arena there is has been much concentration paid t o international outsourcing and its impacts on various markets in the world.Different contrasting views are there on the issue and this research will attempt to explain different hypes and demonstrate what the truths actually are. People have supported a protectionist manner to outsourcing and forcing corporations to keep jobs in Europe. Profits of business have led great businesses to outsource work to Asian countries and they have been great supporters of outsourcing and the competence it permits them. A large amount of researches are there on the issue of outsourcing and it is complicated to cover all the views surrounding it.This research will define some of views and controversies surrounding outsourcing. The objective of this research is to present an in depth look at outsourcing to Asian countries particularly India which is attractive market for multinational companies of Europe. Especially the research will describe the requirement for European multinational companies outso urcing, outsourcing to developing Asian countries like India and the advantages and dangers such as cost jobs and lower wages in Europe connected with outsourcing. Outsourcing is just contracting out little work that was completed in house to an outside corporation.This permits corporations to concentrate on one part of a difficult aim. The advocates of outsourcing describe that this specialization permits corporations to be additional competent. This method could be applied in different businesses where technology has created manufacturing very complicated. Automobiles and Electronics are two items which have different parts that could be produced in various nations and gathered wherever the corporation decides to. This suppleness permits corporations to manage with the increasing difficulty of present manufactured items. Outsourcing is a main issue in the world which is related to cost jobs and lower wages in Europe, moreover individuals are concerned with the works of white colla r that are being outsourced by European multinational companies to developing nations† (Peter, 2006 pp 77-79). Evolution of Outsourcing Before 10 years people use to imagine video conference in their thoughts. Today everything has been changed, anyone who has Smartphone or even a PC can sit back in sofa and have meeting around the world (Ijioui, et al, 171-176). Through technology vast distance has been shorten and has lots of money on business travelling.Outsourcing is shaped by two factors known as globalization and technology. Through advance technology outsourcing is most common thing for multinational companies of Europe (Contractor, et al, 67-72). Through electronic sending several jobs are performed at one place and reported to another place where it is needed. Many countries economics is affected tremendously through outsourcing. In late 1900s, through technology transportation revolution was driven, and the whole scenario of transporting good from place to place was c hanged. Raw material was transported through steamboats and trains.Due to transportation revolution the whole businesses functions was changed and nations started importing and exporting of goods (Contractor, et al, 67-72). In similar way, today business is changed through the accessibility of high-speed data access and the internet. Now many employees are able to work from home through virtual office for some companies. The only necessary tools for this are telephone and a computer with Internet access. Through same technology now people have opportunities to work for countries (Ijioui, et al, 171-176).Outsourcing is decision of multinational companies of Europe to employ an outside company to manage the computer operations of organization, operations of network, and IT function to a vendor for a particular time. This strategic move is decided by excellent administration when they identify that the managing of these performances through another group will decrease expenses and pric es. The decision to outsource by European multinational companies should focus the important role of knowledge and methods in corporations.If complete roll is to be outsourced, adequate terms must be created between the two companies to deal with the company's needs. Furthermore, focus must be presented to the possible requirement for modern solutions to be presented through the outsourcer, with the timing of these performances. India is the seventh-biggest nation through area of geography and situated in South Asia as well as presently it is considerably attractive by European multinational companies. It is the second most crowded nation in the world, and the biggest democratic country in the world. The financial system of India is the fourth biggest in the world as calculated through purchasing power parity (PPP), with an increasing trend of GDP (Adrian, 2008 pp 321-327)†. India has been increasing at a rate of 8 per cent since Prime Minister Man Mohan Singh took charge in e arly 2004. India has a wealthy and exclusive tradition of culture, and the different sub continental population that has controlled to keep the 5000 years older customs, where as absorbing traditions, ideas and traditions from local people, invaders and migrants.Different practices of culture, monuments, languages and traditions are models of this combination over centuries. Great English speaking middle-class in INDIA has participated to the development in outsourcing. â€Å"It is becoming a main part for European multinational companies for future focused study and improvement, comprising the likes of telecommunication companies, etc† (Adrian, 2008 pp 321-327), all this has supported the sector of services to enhance its portion of the market to about fifty percent. Developing countries like India is ongoing to move ahead with financial modifications of market-focused that started in 1991.Current modifications contain liberalized overseas investment and regimes of exchange, decontrol of industry, and important decrease in charges and other business obstacles, modernization and modification of the fiscal sector, important adjustments in monetary and financial strategies of government, and securing intellectual rights of property. India's Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) is growing at an exponential rate in the last decade. This form of revenue is greatly helping the Indian economy and it will continue in the future. There are many reasons for why India has the ideal situation for outsourcing.First of all, basic salary in India for computer experts is one of the lowest in the entire world. Through having this low basic salary, India attracts different organizations from nations with a stronger dollar. A multinational company of Europe could achieve the similar project completed in India for 1/10th the cost it would cost in Europe. This translates to great income for multinational companies, which creates outsourcing extremely smart to them. Secondly, the cultural differences between India and the Europe are not as great compared to other countries like China.If people look back to over 60 years ago, India was under British rule. Under British rule, learning English was mandatory in all schools across India. Today, English is still mandatory in most schools across India and as a result, the communication gap between India and the European world is much smaller than with countries like China, which also have equally qualified software professionals (Kobitzsch et al, 2001). Additionally, most educated people in India know English. This knowledge of the English language allows for western influence with respect to media such as movies, music and entertainment.This social acclimation decreases the culture gap between India and the Western world as compared to China. Thirdly, as the Gulf of Persia has its resources in oil and South Africa in diamonds, natural resources of India depend in its rich technically expert workforce. India ma kes approximately 75, 500 software experts every year and these figures persist to enhance. Different nations do not have the workforce with the abilities that are required and have no option but to outsource to nations like India. India has had a lot of development in the field of IT.There were about 6,800 staffs in the IT business in 1985-1986 and this figure increased to 522,000 staffs from 2001-2002 (Vincent, 2006 pp 22-24). International human resource management (IHRM) is gradually more being identified as a main determinant of achievement or disappointment in international trade (Michael, 2002 pp 459-471). Features of production like technology, capital, raw materials and knowledge can be simply copied, apart from for the individuals or human resources of the company, which is major source of aggressive benefit for different organizations.Corporations must give close concentration to administration of its human resources in India. Presented the reality that it is mostly a fli ght development and training centre in India, it would produce logic to use a polycentric staffing method, where domestic supervisors – host nation supervisors; are employed to fill main positions in their personal nation. Human resources in India are the compulsory element because the operation, design and administration the other remaining resource of science and technology is a purpose of how excellent individuals do their work.In the area of human resource improvement, which is important and has been getting main concern since the starting of improvement strategies, the nation has added a large number of supporting and encouraging staffs and has been capable to enhance rates of literacy of both women and men, with in the numbers of technology, science and research people. In spite of the enhancement in human resources, the nation has not been capable to successfully employ it due to the immigration of expert people to get works in developed nations. Benefit/Risk AnalysisA nalysis of the benefits and risks of outsourcing customer service to India will entail analyzing customer service skills, appropriateness of online services of consumer support, infrastructure, and trust and security. Customer Service Skills The value of consumer service is extremely imperative to a multinational company of Europe. Consumer experts must be capable to manage a collection of troubles where as reducing irritation of consumer. India has a rich source of extremely aggressive universities and institutions of technology, with a concentration on trouble solving.With this information, they are capable to manage with troubles in an efficient and appropriate approach. India is supposed to be the second biggest country with European that speaks English. Moreover to this, different great extent suppliers of consumer service in India instruct their staffs to speak English without pronunciation. Consumer service presenter 24/7 Customer. com in India presents staffs this knowledge in a two week course (Michael, 2002 pp 459-471). They also give training to identify the culture of Europe.Although offshore outsourcers provide these types of training, some specialists believe that the European customer support specialists have a distinct inherent cultural benefit and the capability to become accustomed to alter more rapidly. As a result, they are able to more frequently relate to the customer, and provide empathy towards his or her needs (Bharat, 2007 pp 77-79). Appropriateness of Online Customer Support Services The appropriateness of online services of consumer support is extremely important since the customers understand technological capabilities and have higher expectations.Currently, Jupiter Research has found that a little more than 50% of e-mails could be answered within a day (Ashlyn, 2005 pp 69-73). Research done by the same research group stated that outsourcing customer services to India is recommended for companies seeking to a response time of less than six hours. In addition to timely service, all customer support suppliers offer twenty-four hours of service, seven days a week. Outsourcing is becoming a heavy cost reducing system these days in order to endure with the tough periods in the financial system.With outsourcing requirements, it permits the organization to emphasize on entire services and products. It also permits the outsourcers to keep durable connections with their consumers. India has become one of the most positive places for outsourcing. The major motives for this comprise cost efficacy, plenty of ability and timeliness of online services of consumer support. Additionally, India has excellent rate of literacy in English in the educated people contrasted to other nations. Dangers are concerned there when outsourcing to India.Different features observed at were infrastructure, protection and trust. Every organization should do their individual researches to decide if outsourcing will advantage their organization , but additional so their consumers. Possible Risks of Outsourcing * Outsourcing with a vendor can also cut down the work rate of the employees * The comfort level that the employees once had in the work place can decrease * When the vendors are not going by the contract and getting the computers fixed in a timely manner, the forced labour will be put onto the IT team to get the job done. Also the laid off process will increase that means more people without jobs. The ones that will be laid off are usual the ones that have the experience to do the job right, the first time. Risk mitigation strategy If the company is going to go with vendors the best policy is to make sure there are no loop holes and that the risk manager stays in control of any changes that may or may not happen. By doing this is to discuss and keep the communication line open. The contract is the source of everything that has to do with the vendor and company policy.By reading over the contract and making sure that the company’s lawyers also look over it is the key to stopping the loop holes before they happen. Another method is to install trouble ticket software to monitor any changes to the system and to prevent any downtime when trying to tackle all those trouble tickets. Venders to provide network support Here are a few examples of the different support that can be provided from a vender when dealing with networks; * patches, * firewalls, * routers, * switches, * Intrusion detection system and * Intrusion prevention system.Here is a risk example that can be involved when letting an outside vendor support the network within the company; * The risk that someone that is not working for the company and that will have the access to the network through the admin login can have direct access to all the data in that network of systems. Also that you cannot ask any questions about their risk assessment methods. This can be a major risk that can cost the company a fortune if the vendor is no t chosen the right way. Risk mitigation strategy If the company would install a service for the network security like for an example is DELL’s IPS iSensor.This can load the company up with a security bundle that will protect the network as a whole. â€Å"The Intrusion Prevention Service is designed to not only provide technology, but also supply the expertise and processes you need to actively protect your organization — at a fraction of the cost of doing it yourself. The Intrusion Prevention Service is a comprehensive solution that includes all components needed to provide exceptional protection against cyber-attacks, including: * Dell SecureWorks iSensor IPS appliance and deployment * Online security and compliance portal Expert administration, tuning and maintenance * 24Ãâ€"7 expert monitoring and response * On-call certified security experts This solution is a turnkey service bundle to help organizations gain 24Ãâ€"7 security and satisfy compliance requirementsà ¢â‚¬  (DELL, 2011). Advantages of Outsourcing With lower staff cost, save money: this turns out to be most attractive and beneficial reason for outsourcing. For example, in Europe typical graphic designer have a salary around â‚ ¬6,250 per month, but if this job is outsourced then company can hired a senior overseas graphic designers for â‚ ¬ 2500, which will save â‚ ¬3750 per month.So now one can estimate that how much saving will be done yearly (Contractor, et al, 67-72). No extra cost on employment: for traditional onshore employments there are usually extra costs involved but there are no extra costs for outsource staff. In many countries including Europe many employers have to pay some extra percentage to employees for superannuation, when they lease staff. But in outsource it is employers pay nothings to their overseas employees. Through this many employers save these amounts.No need of extra equipment and office space: through outsourcing different employers have la vishing offices without increased staff. As their staff is busy in doing their work overseas and customers who walk in these office have good impression about the company. In this way employers save a lot of money on equipment and office space (Contractor, et al, 67-72). There are no extra electricity bills that employers have to pay. Some of the other advantages of outsourcing are: * Outsource employees are assemble much faster as there is already people with skills and there is no need of long interviews and it save lot of time. Employers can focus more on core business process by outsourcing all no-core activities. * Business operations can be streamlined through outsourcing. * Through outsourcing employers can encounter an improved power of their business. * Capital expenditures can be saved by the organization through outsourcing. * By outsourcing organizations get more profits and this end up in creating higher jobs in homeland. * Through outsourcing companies save a lot of mo ney, through which can develop more products. Disadvantages of OutsourcingDelivery Problems: in outsourcing the first problem occurs is delivery consistency, most companies experience delivery problems due to a lot of reasons. Delivery overseas on time is usually affected due to material storage, weather problems, manufacturing delay etc. therefore customers are upset and companies have to invest extra on additional stock in order to compensate their customers (Neelankavil and Rai, 221-226). These extra stocks cost the saving money of the companies. Quality issues: usually the samples which companies receive overseas are of good quality.But when it comes to stock poor quality is witness by the companies on their order to different products. Due to outsourcing many companies’ hires poorly paid employees and they don’t seem to have knowledge regarding products. Due to this many organization fails to satisfy their customer overseas and end up in losing them (Neelankavil a nd Rai, 221-226). Jeopardy of revealing private information: outsourcing involves risk of revealing private information about company such as payroll, Human Resources and employment services to captive unit in other country. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONIn conclusion, it can say that outsourcing by multinational companies cost jobs and lower wages in Europe, but there is another aspect as well that is favourable. Therefore recommendation is here to use the outsourcing in appropriate manner. Many multinational companies and European businesses layoff their employees or have been closed due to outsourcing by them. Many jobs have been taken away from European employees and major sector which was highly affected by outsourcing is Information Technology. Due to outsourcing many college students of Europe has decreased in majors of engineering & computers.These college students step back from majors in these subjects as they are afraid that after completing their education they would victi m of cost jobs and lower wages in Europe and they believe that they would not be able to find jobs in respective fields due to sourcing. Outsourcing is no doubt beneficial for companies but what about the talent and skill people living in the country? Multinational companies of Europe should come out with a proper strategic plan in order to save the future of upcoming youth along with other talent people of world.Multinational companies of Europe should outsource limited job and keep rest for European people. As this was the country who gave these companies ground to start and flourish their businesses, so first right goes to citizens of Europe. The objective of every business is to build a profit and grow and it should base for both i. e. company and people of the country. If outsourcing in Europe keep on growing rapidly as the way it is now a days by multinational companies, then future not far away when people will drop out from schools due to lower wages within Europe.It’ s high time for European government and successful multinational companies to understand that skillful and youth people of the Europe is losing hope in successful future and facing threat of cost jobs and lower wages in Europe. Europe’s multinational companies that use outsourcing correctly can take advantage of its benefits and return higher profits, meaning higher retained earnings. These earnings can then be pumped into other parts of the business for improvement, innovation and expansion. Expansion thus creates more jobs and a better national economy. 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